GRE阅读制胜法则节选:句子分析

2022-05-26 11:43:29

  句子是各种成分在一定关系下组合起来表达意义的整体,这些成分主要包括主语/S、谓语/V、宾语或表语/O,再做细分,则包括NP(noun phrase,名词短语), VP(verb phrase, 谓语结构,包括谓语动词V及其宾语NP,通常我们只分析谓语动词V), CP(clause phrase,从句), AP(adjective phrase, 形容词短语), PP(preposition phrase,介词短语)等等。句子是短语或成分之间的函数关系(f=function),于是,一个句子可记为:

  Sentence = SVO = f (NP, VP, CP, AP, PP)

  对于分析句子结构来说,AP与PP相对次要,最重要的还是NP, VP, CP,下面会重点以它们为基础构造长句。

  A General Structure of (Long) Sentence长句分析

  

  

  长句如何构成?我们可以用假说演绎法来推导句子的结构。从上往下看,一个句子,要么有一个主谓宾(SVO),这时,它的主语或宾语(S/O)可以有一层从句修饰(CP)或多层从句修饰(CP1-Cp2);要么有多个主谓宾(以两个主谓宾的情况作为代表:SVO, SVO),这时,各个主谓宾之间的关系要么是并列(SVO+SVO),其中有正常平列的,如when, if, because所提示的,偶尔也有总分关系,如冒号所提示的:SVO: SVO,可算作广义并列;要么是对立(SVO vs. SVO),其中有纯对比,如whereas, however所提示的,也有让步转折含有对比的,如although, though所暗示的。以上演绎结果可以总结如下:

  

  换个角度,我们可以从只有一个主谓宾的简单句开始,从下往上,逐步建构长句。长句在阅读时如何处理、如何提取信息?多数时候,长句的核心都在其主干中,而不在修饰成分,包括分词、同位语、修饰性的从句等。我们提出长句提炼的8字原则:主干>修饰;主句>从句。

  主干与修饰之间有总分结构吗?对任意一个主谓宾的主语或宾语,都可以展开说明,主语或宾语的NP好比是总的小论点,而修饰它的从句、分词、同位语,尤其是并列的修饰成分,好比是分的小论据,这样,就有NP – CP结构;对CP结构应用同样的规则,其主语或宾语的Np好比中心,可以展开说明,也就是修饰它的更下一层的从句、分词、同位语,尤其是并列的修饰成分,这就是第二层从句,于是就有NP-CP1-Cp2。对任何一层修饰(CP),作为小论据,都会重现所修饰名词(NP)的核心词汇。这就是说,针对NP that Np’ v Np’’,通常会有v Np’’= NP(逻辑等价)。这样我们就把总分结构的思维应用于句子的分析了,可以在修饰成分的词汇和主干词汇相互推导,如其中一部分为生词,则可从另一部分的熟词来猜测它的意思。在

  最基本的句子是主谓宾各自只有一个单词,SVO = NP V NP。至于NP V AP的主语-系动词-表语形容词结构,因为比较简单,这里不作分析。#p#副标题#e#

  1. LNP & Parallelism长名词短语和并列成分

  增加句子长度的第一个方法就是把主语和宾语都变成长名词短语(Long Noun Phrase=LNP)。

  S = np1 of np2 in np3 V O=np1 of np2 in np3 over np4. => SVO = np1-3 V np1-4.

  该句的主语和宾语有3-4个名词短语。只计算名词和动词的字数,主语有3个词,谓语是1个动词,宾语3-4个词,则这个句子有8个单词左右。对长名词短语,把握的核心,通常在第一个名词np1;如果np1是抽象名词,如the view of, the discovery of, the fact of等,或有动词和形容词修饰的名词,如development, lack, scarcity,或数量词,如the number of, the amount of,则需要掌握第二个名词np2;简单来说就是,如果np1不是实际意义的名词,就要找到np2,找到第一个有实际意义的名词。第3-4个名词往往都是限定范围的词汇,不太重要。于是,通常情况下,对于这个句子,把握的重点是:np1 V np1。

  1’.并列成分:只抓一个

  有时,句子变长不是因为主语和宾语位置的长名词短语,而是因为这些位置出现连续并列,有时可称为parallelism(平行结构)。如果是主语并列、宾语并列,只抓其中1个就行,因为各个并列成分是等价的,没有哪个比另一个更重要或次要。有时甚至会出现谓语并列,这时抓住一个能够马上理解的谓语就行,可以相对忽略其他的谓语结构。

  2. NP-CP单层修饰

  主语和宾语的任何一个名词都可以被从句(CP, that/which/who…)、分词结构(VP, v-ing/v-ed…)、同位语及其从句(NP+CP, np that…,)所修饰。由于分词结构可以转化为定语从句,同位语及其从句的修饰内容也包含从句,为求方便,我们把这些都称之为广义从句。这里,没有考虑纯粹的名词同位语、形容词短语、或其它不包含动词的修饰,因为它们都比较简单。谓语动词通常没什么可修饰的。于是,我们得到:

  S = np1-3 that/which/who V O=np1-4 that/which/who

  v-ing/v-ed v-ing/v-ed

  , (with) np that..., , (with) np that...,

  在这里,主语(S)和宾语(O)的修饰方法完全一样。这样,句子有1个主句、2个从句。主句约8个词,每个修饰的广义从句也可能有6-9个甚至更多单词。粗略估计,整句有1个主句+2个广义从句 = 3个小句,每句6-9个词,整句就有25个词左右,正好是

  显然,句子的主干比修饰的从句、分词、同位语及其从句都重要,因此,抓住主干的np1-4 V np1-4即可;再按照长名词短语的np1原则,则整个句子要把握的核心依然是: np1 V np1。

  有时,句子的主语或宾语的第一个词是that, whether, why, how等引导的一个完整小句子,这些从句被称为主语从句或宾语从句,对于任何这样的从句,当然要单独分析其主干,而不能只是以主语或宾语的第一个词作为核心。如:

  That np1 of np2 V np1 of np2 that … V that np1 of np2 V np1 of np2 which….

  这时的重点就是三个句子的主干了。通常在这种情况下,各个主谓宾中,有一两个是最重要的,找出来并不困难,少数时候重点在主语从句的主干,多数时候则是宾语从句的主干。由于宾语从句比主语从句更常见,所以我们有一个口诀:宾语从句,单独分析。

  3. NP-CP1-Cp2多层修饰:从句的递归

  句子的构造可以使用递归(recursion)或嵌套(nesting)方法,其中思维类似于文章的结构分析中所说的多层分解。在句子上的递归和嵌套是说,任何一个广义从句(CP=clause phrase)里的主语和宾语的名词,又可以被从句、分词、同位语及其从句所修饰,这个下一层修饰的广义从句里的主语和宾语的名词,又可以被再下一层的广义从句所修饰,依此进行下去。Steven Pinker在他的杰作Words and Rules里画过这样一张图(p.9),图里的S=sentence,相当于我们所说的广义从句/CP;NP=noun phrase;VP= verb phrase/谓语结构, VP=V + NP,而NP可被从句或新的句子/S修饰,于是VP=V+NP+S,这个新的S=NP + VP,VP = V+NP+S,依此下去,层层递归:

  

  (Source: Steven Pinker, Words and Rules, p. 9)

  但是,从句的递归可以直到无穷吗?没有那么长的句子。GRE最长的句子约88个单词。更重要的是,修饰内容如果是层层嵌套的广义从句,很难理解。学术文章的句子并非越长越好,越难越好;学术句子写得长,通常是出于严密推理的考虑,而不是以故意让人读不懂为乐。尤其是,如果一个短语的修饰从句层次太深,人的天然认知水平很难跟进,读到第4层、第5层可能就迷失了,这样的句子并不便于学术沟通,因此往往很少出现。多数时候,主语的从句最多2-3层,宾语的从句可稍多,3-5层。在GRE的句子里,我们假定长句的主语的从句修饰有2层,宾语有3层,则我们可以构造一个包含6个广义从句(CP)的长句:

  SVO = np1-3 CP1-Cp2 V np1-3 CP1-Cp2-cp3

  将其中的广义从句展开,则有:

  SVO = np1-3 that…, which…, V np1-3, which…and which…, v-ed…, np1 of np2 that…

  该句的主语是长名词短语,np1-3, 后面有that从句,该从句里的名词再被which从句所修饰,然后是谓语动词V,接着就是宾语的长名词短语,np1-3,然后有并列的两个which从句,该从句的名词被分词v-ed修饰,分词结构里的名词再被同位语np1 of np2修饰,该同位语本身的名词被that从句修饰。已经很复杂了。估算这个句子的字数:1个主句,主语2个从句,宾语可算3个从句,则整句有6个小句子,每句6-9个单词,于是该句也许有50个单词。按照主干>修饰原则,所有从句,无论多层修饰还是单层修饰皆次要,则该句的把握核心依然是:np1 V np1。

  这种分析,不是从语法着眼,而是聚焦句子的构造,这就给我们看长句时,提供了一个关注焦点,管理了我们的注意力,让我们从每个单词的分散思考的状态,转变到专门针对主句主干的聚焦状态。当然,到此为止,我们只是以长名词短语、单层修饰、多层修饰,构造了长句子。更长句子的构造还需要加入独立的主谓宾。#p#副标题#e#

  4. SVO, SVO独立从句或多个主谓宾

  很多长句含有好几个相对对立的主谓宾小句子。与作为修饰内容、从属于所修饰名词的that/which/who从句中从句的先行词往往充当从句的成分不同,这些从句是完整的,由连词if/because/when/although/while/whereas等引导,这些连词本身并不充当句子成分,我们将这些从句定义为独立从句,或简单说成新的主谓宾。

  独立从句与主句之间的关系有时是广义并列,最常见的就是正常并列或平行的关系,如:

  SVO if / because / when SVO

  如果每个主谓宾的主语和宾语都被1-3层从句修饰,则该句展开就可以写成:

  np1-3 that…V np1-3, which…, v-ed…, np that… if/because/when np1-3 which…, V np1-3, which…, v-ed…, np that…

  该句有2个主谓宾的句子,各自有1+3=4个广义从句,共有10个小句子,平均每个8个单词,整句会有80个单词或更多。这时,把握的重点通常不在独立从句,因为if, because, when等表示条件、原因和时间的从句,多数时候只是说明主句动作发生的周边情况,并非句子核心。把握重点是主句主干,也就是主句的np1 V np1。

  少数时候,广义并列的2-3个句子也会有总分关系,通常会有冒号作为提示,如:

  SVO: SVO, SVO

  这时,冒号前后是总分关系,最重要的是总的句子的主干,分的句子的主干也可关注,因为它好比是证据,会重复总的句子的内容,出现同义重复或者至少是逻辑等价的词汇。

  独立从句与主句之间的关系有时可能是对比的,如:

  Although/ While / Whereas SVO, SVO

  While, whereas通常表示对比;让步从句与主句之间至少也包含对比,属于广义对比。如果每个主语和宾语都被1-3层广义从句修饰,显然也可以写成:

  Although/While / Whereasnp1-3 that…V np1-3 which…, v-ed…, np that…, np1-3 that…V np1-3, which…, v-ing….

  这时,按照对比关系出现时,对比找反义的技巧,就不能只是关注主句,还要考虑独立从句的内容。这样,我们就要分别抓出主句和独立从句的主干,于是要把握的核心就是:np1 V np1 vs. np1 V np1。由于对比反义的内容通常在两个分句的宾语,因此抓住各自从句的宾语、有时也包括谓语,是比较重要的:np1 V np1 vs. np1 Vnp1。事实上,含有对比或让步的句子,语义上的对比反义词比单纯的句子主干更重要。这一点可以推广,对含有因果、机制、对比、让步的句子,语义的核心词,即因果双方或对比内容,比各个分句的语法主干更重要,我们将这称为,语义压倒语法。

  句子还可以写得更长:加入更多独立的主谓宾,每个主谓宾的主语和宾语各自再给多层修饰。写长句不是写作的目的;写作的目的是严密而且清晰。但如果遇到这些句子,我们需要知道怎么快速处理得到核心。如:

  SVO; SVO; SVO (3个句子并列;核心是各自主句的主干)

  SVO: SVO; SVO; SVO (冒号前后是总分关系;最重要的是总的句子的主干)

  Although SVO, SVO while SVO (2个层次的对比句子,可找两对反义词)

  SVO if SVO; however, SVO because SVO, though SVO. (第1个SVO的主干和however之后主句主干重要)

  以上关于句子结构的分析,是应用递归、组合等方法,从下往上,从简单句逐步构造出复杂的长句,并指出相应的阅读重心,以管理我们阅读长句的注意力。

  提示

  1. 上文是原句,读者先自己读一遍,试想核心是什么;然后再读下文,黑体表示句子核心,斜黑体表示广义从句(含有动词的修饰)中重复核心(核心等价)或反义重复的词;关于如何和为何找这些词,见“说明”。斜体表示第一层广义从句修饰引导词,划线斜体表示第二层,双划线斜体表示第三层(网页现在无法反映);从句修饰内容皆次要。凡修饰内容均有斜体。此外,并列或对比的独立从句的先行词,如when, if, although, whereas,不作标识。

  2. 句子的分析分三个层面:语法主干(所有句子)、语义核心(一些句子)、句内逻辑关系或上下句关系(少数句子)。一些仅凭主干还无法了解其意义的句子,配有译文。句子分析不是翻译;翻译其实并非必需。

  3. 句子选自GRE-RC-36套的Exercise 13,15, 23, 24, 25,26。选择这些练习的句子并无特别原因,只是提供足够的句子。不必收集所有长句,长句不是读得越多就越好,因为边际收益递减。精心练习30-50句最重要。

  长名词短语和并列成分

  1. But the recent discovery of detailed similarities in the skeletal structure of the flippers in all three groups undermines the attempt to explain away superficial resemblance as due to convergent evolution—the independent development of similarities between unrelated groups in response to similar environmental pressures.

  But the recent discovery of detailed similarities in the skeletal structure of the flippers in all three groups undermines the attempt to explain away superficial resemblance as due to convergent evolution—the independent development of similarities between unrelated groups in response to similar environmental pressures.

  【说明】

  主语和宾语是长名词短语,抓np1。主语是np1-5,其中,np1 discovery,抽象名词,不够用,还要找np2,于是有similarities,后面的in np3 of np4 in np5为范围限定,对该句本身的处理来说,相对次要。谓语动词为undermine, =weaken, ruin, 摧毁,削弱。宾语attempt后有不定式修饰,抓住动宾结构的核心词,在这里就是explain away(敷衍或草率解释) … as due to之后的名词convergent evolution。之后的破折号为具体说明,次要,其中的response,与evolution在意义上相等,属逻辑等价词。核心内容可再简化:similarities undermine convergent evolution。(flipper:鳍脚,脚蹼; superficial: 表面的;convergent: 趋同,汇聚,收敛)

  2. They were fighting, albeit discreetly, to open the intellectual world to the new science and to liberate intellectual life from ecclesiastical philosophy and envisioned their work as contributing to the growth, not of philosophy, but of research in mathematics and physics.

  They were fighting, albeit discreetly, to open the intellectual world to the new science and to liberate intellectual life from ecclesiastical philosophy and envisioned their work as contributing to the growth, not of philosophy, but ofresearch in mathematics and physics.

  【说明】

  主语是they,两个谓语成分并列: were fighting, envisioned …as, 由于并列,只抓一个,第一个就很好。在第一个谓语部分,有连续动词,v1 to v2,多数时候,连续动词取最后一个动词作为核心,因为它紧跟宾语,决定动作的主要内容。同时,to open后面与它并列的to liberate则那不重要,因为并列,这样,就很轻松的处理掉了ecclesiastical philosophy这种专业术语。它的中间有一个让步的插入成分,albeit= although,注意位置即可,若考题可通过句子主干定位回来。第二个谓语与第一个并列,如果抓核心,则是contributing to the growth… of mathematics and physics,这里mathematics and physics = new science,与第一个谓语的核心open to the new science逻辑等价。它有两个动词,envisioned, contributing to,后者是前者的补足成分,当动词连续出现,可取最后一个动词作为重点,因为它能清楚说明动作内容。(discreet = prudent, modest, not obtrusive; ecclesiastical: 教会的;Ecclesiastes: 圣经的传道书)

  单层修饰

  3. Friedrich Engels, however, predicted that women would be liberated from the "social, legal, and economic subordination" of the family by technological developments that made possible the recruitment of "the whole female sex into public industry."

  Friedrich Engels, however, predicted that women would be liberated from the "social, legal, and economic subordination" of the family by technological developments that made possible the recruitment of "the whole female sex into public industry."

  【说明】

  主句的主语是人名,取最后一个大写字母,E;宾语是that引导的宾语从句,单独分析其主干。宾语从句的主语是women, 谓语动词的主要词汇是liberated by,谓语动词右侧是广义宾语,宾语核心词为by后面的technological developments,development属抽象词,抓实际意义的technological;之后为that从句修饰,不算前面的宾语从句(predicted) that,这是该句的第一层修饰性的从句,不重要。因此句子核心只是:E说,women … be liberated by technological…;他认为技术发展可让女性从家庭中解放。(subordination:秩序-ord-之下sub-à从属,附属,束缚;recruitment:招聘)

  4. This is not because such an interpretation necessarily stiffens into a thesis (although rigidity in any interpretation of this or of any novel is always a danger), but because Wuthering Heights has recalcitrant elements of undeniable power that, ultimately, resist inclusion in an all-encompassing interpretation.

  This is not because such an interpretation necessarily stiffens into a thesis (although rigidity in any interpretation of this or of any novel is always a danger), but because Wuthering Heights has recalcitrant elements of undeniable power that, ultimately, resist inclusion in an all-encompassing interpretation.

  【说明】

  主语是this,谓语动词是is,广义宾语是not because, but because形成的对比结构,重点在but because。把because 看作一个宾语从句,单独分析主干,则其主语是一本斜体表示的书名,取首字母,WH;谓语动词是has;宾语是名词短语np1 of np2,抓np1,recalcitrant不认识,就看elements,之后是that引导的定语从句修饰,只有一层,是为单层修饰,按照名词与修饰同义重复或逻辑等价原则,可以推出,resist inclusion = recalcitrant。于是,整句的核心就是说,这是因为WH有一些要素,抵制包含在解释中。如果愿意,可以通过not, but的对比找前后两个分句的一对反义词,按对比找反义、反义在宾语的原则,这就是,not stiffen, but resist inclusion,意思是,不是因为僵化成一个论点,而是因为抵制在一个囊括一切的论点中。最后,该句括号里的让步although属于补充说明,注意位置即可,不必当时理解,理解也很容易,rigid = stiffen(这些等号均属逻辑等价,并非语言等同)。(stiff = rigid, stubborn; recalcitrant = obstinately defiant, unruly, resistant, 顽固的,不服从权威的,抵制的)

  5. Metaphysics, philosophy’s traditional core— considered as the most general description of how the heavens and the earth are put together—had been rendered almost completely meaningless by the spectacular progress of physics.

  Metaphysics, philosophy’s traditional core—considered as the most general description of how the heavens and the earth are put together—had been rendered almost completely meaningless by the spectacular progress of physics.

  【说明】

  主语是metaphysics,专业词汇取首字母m,之后有同位语,可以注意其中的时间词traditional, 可能暗示下一句有对比内容讲recent;该同位语被破折号里的过去分词considered所修饰,次要,这个广义从句之内的宾语含有how的名词性从句,。谓语动词是been rendered,广义宾语是meaningless,真正宾语是physics。本句简单,但依然要注意基本功训练,看到句子,不被专业内容吓倒,迅速找出核心即可。只要一句之内的专业词汇不会太多,这样的处理方法就十分有效。全句的意思是M被physics弄得无意义了。(metaphysics, 形而上学, 研究自然原理的学问; render = make, do; spectacular: 壮观的)

  6. Kant, however, by focusing philosophy on the problem of knowledge, managed to replace metaphysics with epistemology, and thus to transform the notion of philosophy as “queen of sciences” into the new notion of philosophy as a separate, foundational discipline: philosophy became “primary” no longer in the sense of “highest” but in the sense of “underlying”.

  Kant, however, by focusing philosophy on the problem of knowledge, managed to replace metaphysics with epistemology, and thus to transform the notion of philosophy as “queen of sciences” into the new notion of philosophy as a separate, foundational discipline: philosophy became “primary” no longer in the sense of “highest” but in the sense of “underlying”.

  【说明】

  主语是专业人名,取首字母K;谓语动词为连续动词v1 to v2,抓第二个动词replace,广义宾语(谓语动词右侧皆是)为专业名词,均取首字母,m vs. e。插入的方式状语by focusing on属于广义从句(有动词成分的修饰),作为单层修饰,它与谓语动作平行,故可推出,focus on = replace with, knowledge = epistemology,于是前半句的意思是, K以e或knowledge取代m。后半句本为不定式的并列,但因为由thus连接,故为该句甚至全段结论,可再抓其动词和宾语,动词是transform/根本改变, 宾语核心是新哲学:new p(hilosophy),冒号之后为具体说明,用一个句子说明new p的特点,可以看作是修饰性的广义从句,按照修饰与名词同义重复的原则,underlying = foundational。整个句子的意思是,K以e取代m,变出新的p,作为foundational的学科。(underlying: basic, fundamental; epistemology: 认识论,知识理论)

  7. Only in the case of the February Revolution do we lack a useful description of participants that might characterize it in the light of what social history has taught us about the process of revolutionary mobilization.

  Only in the case of the February Revolution do we lack a useful description of participants that might characterize it in the light of what social history has taught us about the process of revolutionary mobilization.

  【说明】

  本句为only引出的倒装结构。主语是we,谓语动词lack,宾语是useful description,倒装所强调的2月革命必须重视。宾语descrpition之后有that的单层修饰,该从句的广义宾语含有what引起的名词性从句。整句的意思是,只有在2月革命中,我们才缺乏有用描述。至于that从句,的确次要。(characterize,刻画(特征);in the light of = according to, in the view of,按照;mobilization,动员)

  8. It was not the change in office technology, but rather the separation of secretarial work, previously seen as an apprenticeship for beginning managers, from administrative work that in the 1880's created a new class of "dead-end" jobs, thenceforth considered "women's work."

  It was not the change in office technology, but rather the separation of secretarial work, previously seen as an apprenticeship for beginning managers, from administrative work that in the 1880's created a new class of "dead-end" jobs, thenceforth considered "women's work."

  【说明】

  本句为强调句型,It was …that,但所强调部分居然为一对比结构,not… but rather…,but之后是重点,也是句子主语,为一长名词短语np1 of np2, v-ed, from np3,中间被过去分词修饰seen as所隔断,是单层修饰,次要,抓np1,separation,为抽象名词,还要抓np2,secretarial work;谓语动词created;宾语核心词dead-end jobs(没前途的工作),之后有分词considered修饰,单层修饰。可以考虑not…but的对比,一对反义词是 technology vs. separation,不是技术原因,而是文秘工作分离的原因。整句的核心意思是,不是技术,而是文秘工作分离,创造了dead-end jobs。(apprenticeship:实习、见习工作;thenceforth: 由此,于是,因此)

  9. When nitrogen levels are low, however, specialized cells called heterocysts are produced which lack chlorophyll (necessary for photosynthesis) but which can fix nitrogen by converting nitrogen gas into a usable form.

  Whennitrogen levels are low, however, specialized cells called heterocysts are produced which lack chlorophyll (necessary for photosynthesis) but which can fix nitrogen by converting nitrogen gas into a usable form.

  【说明】

  有主句和独立的时间从句when,首先抓主句的主干,主语是specialized cells,特化细胞,后有分词called引起的命名,专业名词取首字母h,然后是which, but which两个平行的单层修饰的定语从句,修饰主语cells或h。到底为止,应该结束了。但是,规则总有例外:对理科句子而言,数量概念始终重要,特别当出现两个量对应的时候,很可能是数量因果 = 相关。所以,when从句讲,n(itrogen)的水平或数量低(n↓),主句讲h会产生,它缺少c(hlorophyll),而photosynthesis需要c,故p此时也少(p↓),但能固定n(itrogen),n会开始增多。按因果找双方的原则可得:n↓: c↓:p↓,简化之后就是n↓: p↓。这个例子可以推广,只要句内出现两个概念之间的数量相关,则这一关系比任何句子成分重要,因为有时特定的语义会压倒语法的重要性。另外,从上下句关系看,相关性的内容一般会两个方面都谈到,故上一句或下一句也许出现:n↑: p↑。

  10. According to the model, that signal is generated as a negative Rossby wave, a wave of depressed, or negative, sea level, that moves westward parallel to the equator at 25 to 85 kilometers per day.

  According to the model, that signal is generated as a negative Rossby wave, a wave of depressed, or negative, sea level, that moves westward parallel to the equator at 25 to 85 kilometers per day.

  【说明】

  本句简单,主语that signal,谓语动词generated,广义宾语R. wave,宾语后有同位语名词短语,还有that从句单层修饰,均次要,按修饰与名词同义重复原则,depressed = negative。整句意思是,某信号产生,成为R. wave。(depressed, 下压的,抑制的;parallel, 平行)

  *宾语从句 抽象词从句

  11. The alternative explanation supposes that the Sun's large-scale magnetic field is a remnant of the field the Sun acquired when it formed, and is not sustained against decay.

  The alternative explanation supposes that the Sun's large-scale magnetic field is a remnant of the field the Sun acquired when it formed, and is not sustained against decay.

  【说明】

  主语alternative explanation,谓语动词suppose,宾语为that引起的宾语从句,单独分析,主干是太阳的magnetic field/磁场,谓语动词is,宾语是remnant(残余,来自remain),宾语之后其实有两层修饰(不算that宾语从句,单独计算),the Sun acquired为第一层,定语从句,省略了先行词that/which,之后有when从句的第二层修饰,但比较简单,不作分析重点,之后有并列的谓语结构,并列成分同义重复,于是可知,remnant = not against decay = decay。全句的意思是,替代理论认为,磁场是残余,会衰败。从上下句关系来看,本句提出alternative explanation,与前文已有的explanation对立,本句之后,可以展开替代理论(kw)的证据(x y z)。

  12. They conclude that such dramatic technological innovations as the spinning jenny, the sewing machine, the typewriter, and the vacuum cleaner have not resulted in equally dramatic social changes in women's economic position or in the prevailing evaluation of women's work.

  They conclude that such dramatic technological innovations as the spinning jenny, the sewing machine, the typewriter, and the vacuum cleaner have not resulted in equally dramatic social changes in women's economic position or in the prevailing evaluation of women's work.

  【说明】

  典型的宾语从句单独分析的例子。They conclude that是主句的主谓宾。宾语从句的主语是dramatic technological innovations,剧烈技术革新,其中有连续并列的举例成分,次要,谓语是否定性的动词,not result in,宾语是长名词短语,np1 in np2 or in np3,抓np1,dramatic social changes。全句的意思是,剧烈技术变化,没有导致剧烈女性方面的社会变化。从上下句的结构关系来分析,可注意本句conclude提示论点核心,如放在段落前1-2句,为主题句(ts=kw),如放在段落末尾,为结论句(cs),任何情况下,中间证据均从属于它。(dramtic: striking, fundamental, revolutionary, transforming, 戏剧性的,剧烈的,根本的)

  13. Since 1953, many experimental attempts to synthesize the chemical constituents of life under "primitive Earth conditions" have demonstrated that a variety of the complex molecules currently making up living organisms could have been present in the early ocean and atmosphere, with only one limitation: such molecules are synthesized far less readily when oxygen-containing compounds dominate the atmosphere.

  Since 1953, many experimental attempts to synthesize the chemical constituents of life under "primitive Earth conditions" have demonstrated that a variety of the complex molecules currently making up living organisms could have been present in the early ocean and atmosphere, with only one limitation: such molecules are synthesized far less readily when oxygen-containing compounds dominate the atmosphere.

  【说明】

  主句的主语是attempts,不定式to synthesize修饰,可抓动宾结构核心,在这里是名词chemical constituents,谓语动词是demonstrate(证明、表明),之后是that宾语从句,单独分析,主干是该句的真正中心。从句的主语是complex molecules,有现在分词v-ing修饰,次要,谓语内容为been present,广义宾语注意early。到此为止的内容是说,一些研究表明,复杂分子在早期就存在。但规则都有少数例外,后面来了only引导的强调内容,冒号之后的句子还出现了广义数量词(less, dominate)、when等,暗示相关性,当氧主宰时(o↑),分子不容易合成(m↓)。数量相关,语义压倒语法,于是,整个句子的重心先从第一个主谓宾迁移到宾语从句的主谓宾,又再迁移到only强调的数量相关。全句的核心意思是,研究表明,o↑:m↓(氧多:分子少)。最后,从句间关系来看,相关性的另一方面会在上句或下句提到:o↓: m↑(氧少:分子多)。

  14. The common belief of some linguists that each language is a perfect vehicle for the thoughts of the nation speaking it is in some ways the exact counterpart of the conviction of the Manchester school of economics that supply and demand will regulate everything for the best.

  The common belief of some linguists that each language is a perfect vehicle for the thoughts of the nation speaking it is in some ways the exact counterpart of the conviction of the Manchester school of economics that supply and demand will regulate everything for the best.

  【说明】

  该句的主语belief,宾语conviction,都是抽象名词,其后跟出的that从句恰好都是同位语从句(整句修饰一个名词,that不作从句成分),需要单独分析。不必追究从句的语法分类;我们只要知道,抽象词的从句,单独分析,例如the fact that, the theory that, the hypothesis that等,都需要找其后从句的主谓宾作为真正重点。本句主语是语言学家的信念,belief之后的从句讲每个语言都完美(perfect),宾语the nation后面有很短的分词修饰speaking it。谓语动词is,它的主语不是it,而是前面的belief。宾语counterpart重要,它的字意是说虽然位置不同但功能、作用相同的人或物,该词的重点不在前缀counter的不同,而在相同,counterpart = similarity。宾语含有M. school,有that从句修饰,其核心在供应-需求法则达到最佳(best)。整句的意思是,语言学家认为语言完美,类似于经济学者认为供求最佳。由于句内含有相同的比较,比较找同义,所以本句最核心的词是perfect = the best。从上下句的结构关系来考虑,本句common belief是大众意见,后文常有反驳;另外,本句自身内容为两者比较,如有证据展开,则应为l=e. l1=e1. l2=e2 (l=linguists, e=economist)。

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